Qualitative Research Glossary | The Qualitative Researcher

A

Action Research

A participatory research approach that combines investigation with action to solve practical problems while generating knowledge. Researchers and participants collaborate throughout the process.

A teacher-researcher studying classroom engagement implements new teaching strategies, collects data on outcomes, reflects, and adjusts the approach iteratively.

Audit Trail

A detailed, transparent description of the research steps taken from the start of a project to the development and reporting of findings. Used to establish dependability and confirmability.

The researcher maintained a log documenting each decision made during coding, including why codes were merged, split, or discarded.

Axial Coding

A second-cycle coding process in grounded theory that relates categories and subcategories to each other. Axial coding reassembles data that were fractured during open coding by identifying relationships among codes.

After open coding, the researcher connected the category 'coping strategies' to its subcategories: 'social support,' 'avoidance,' and 'problem-solving.'

B

Bracketing

A process used in phenomenological research where the researcher sets aside (or brackets) their preconceptions, biases, and assumptions about the phenomenon being studied to approach the data with fresh perspective. Also called epoché.

Before interviewing patients about chronic pain, the researcher wrote a reflexivity memo identifying her own experiences with pain and consciously set these aside.

See also: Epoché, Phenomenology, Reflexivity

C

Case Study

A qualitative research approach that involves an in-depth investigation of a bounded system (a case) in its real-world context. Cases can be individuals, groups, organizations, events, or programs.

A researcher conducted a case study of one urban school's implementation of a new literacy program over an academic year.

Codebook

A document that lists and defines all codes used in a qualitative study. A well-developed codebook includes the code name, a clear definition, inclusion/exclusion criteria, and an example.

The codebook entry for 'Financial Barrier' included: Definition — Any reference to cost or financial limitation preventing access to healthcare. Example — 'I couldn't afford the copay so I just didn't go.'

Coding

The process of assigning labels (codes) to segments of qualitative data (text, images, video) to categorize and organize the data for analysis. Coding is typically iterative and may involve multiple cycles.

The researcher read through interview transcripts line by line, assigning codes like 'time pressure,' 'work-life conflict,' and 'supervisor support' to relevant passages.

Confirmability

The degree to which the findings of a qualitative study could be confirmed or corroborated by others. It ensures that findings are shaped by the participants rather than researcher bias. One of Lincoln and Guba's four trustworthiness criteria.

The researcher established confirmability by maintaining an audit trail and having a peer reviewer examine the data and interpretations.

Constant Comparison

An analytic process central to grounded theory in which each new piece of data is compared with previously collected data and emerging codes/categories. This iterative comparison refines categories and identifies patterns.

Each time a new interview was coded, the researcher compared the codes to those from previous interviews, refining category definitions and noting similarities and differences.

Constructivism

An epistemological position holding that knowledge and meaning are constructed by human beings as they engage with the world. In qualitative research, constructivism emphasizes that realities are multiple, socially constructed, and context-dependent.

From a constructivist perspective, the researcher recognized that participants' accounts of their illness experience were shaped by cultural, social, and personal factors.

Content Analysis

A systematic research method for analyzing textual data by identifying and quantifying patterns, themes, or concepts. Can be quantitative (counting frequencies) or qualitative (interpreting meaning in context).

The researcher analyzed 200 news articles about climate change, coding for frames such as 'economic impact,' 'scientific uncertainty,' and 'moral responsibility.'

Credibility

The confidence in the truth of the findings. Credibility is the qualitative equivalent of internal validity and is established through strategies like prolonged engagement, triangulation, and member checking. One of Lincoln and Guba's four trustworthiness criteria.

To enhance credibility, the researcher spent six months in the field, triangulated data from interviews, observations, and documents, and conducted member checks with participants.

Critical Theory

A research paradigm concerned with power, inequality, and social justice. Critical researchers seek to expose and challenge structures of oppression and advocate for marginalized groups.

Using critical theory, the researcher examined how institutional policies systematically disadvantaged first-generation college students from low-income backgrounds.

Cross-Case Analysis

A research method that involves examining themes, patterns, and differences across multiple cases. Used in multiple case study designs to build broader understanding.

After analyzing three individual school cases, the researcher conducted a cross-case analysis and found that leadership style was a common factor in successful implementation.

D

Data Saturation

The point in data collection when no new information, themes, or codes emerge from additional data. Saturation signals that sufficient data have been collected for the research purpose.

After the 15th interview, the researcher noticed that no new codes were emerging and determined that data saturation had been reached.

Deductive Coding

A coding approach that begins with a predetermined set of codes derived from theory, prior research, or the research questions. Contrasts with inductive coding, which generates codes from the data.

The researcher used Bandura's self-efficacy theory to create codes for 'mastery experience,' 'vicarious experience,' 'verbal persuasion,' and 'physiological state' before coding the data.

See also: Inductive Coding, Coding, Codebook

Dependability

The stability and consistency of the research process over time. Dependability is the qualitative parallel to reliability and is established through detailed documentation of research procedures. One of Lincoln and Guba's four trustworthiness criteria.

To establish dependability, the researcher kept a detailed research journal and had an external auditor review the process documentation.

Descriptive Coding

A first-cycle coding method that assigns labels to data segments to summarize the topic of the passage in a word or short phrase. Descriptive codes identify what the data are about, not what they mean.

A passage about a student's morning routine before school was given the descriptive code 'Daily Routine.'

Digital Ethnography

An adaptation of traditional ethnographic methods to study human behavior, culture, and social interaction in digital environments such as online communities, social media platforms, and virtual worlds. Also called netnography or virtual ethnography.

The researcher spent six months observing and documenting interaction patterns in an online patient support forum, analyzing how members constructed shared illness narratives through posts, reactions, and private messages.

E

Emic Perspective

The insider's or participant's point of view and cultural understanding. Emic descriptions use the language, concepts, and categories meaningful to the group being studied.

The researcher used participants' own terms like 'brain fog' and 'crashing' rather than clinical terminology to describe their fatigue experiences.

Epistemology

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of knowledge — how we know what we know. In research, epistemology shapes decisions about what counts as valid knowledge and how it can be acquired.

A researcher operating from a constructivist epistemology believes that knowledge is co-constructed through the interaction between researcher and participant.

See also: Ontology, Constructivism, Positivism

Epoché

A Greek term meaning to abstain or suspend judgment. In phenomenological research, epoché is the deliberate act of setting aside one's natural attitude and preconceptions to examine a phenomenon freshly. Often used interchangeably with bracketing.

The researcher practiced epoché by writing extensive memos about her assumptions regarding homelessness before beginning interviews with participants.

Essence

In phenomenology, the essential, invariant structure of a phenomenon — what makes the experience what it is. The goal of phenomenological analysis is to identify the essence of the lived experience being studied.

Through analysis of 12 interviews, the researcher identified the essence of the experience of academic failure as 'a rupture in one's assumed trajectory.'

Ethnography

Both a research process and a product. As a process, ethnography involves prolonged immersion in a cultural group to understand their beliefs, practices, and social interactions. As a product, it is the written account of that culture.

The researcher spent 18 months embedded in a hospital emergency department, observing, interviewing, and participating in daily routines to understand the culture of emergency medicine.

Etic Perspective

The outsider's or researcher's analytical perspective on a cultural group. Etic descriptions use the researcher's theoretical frameworks and analytical categories rather than participants' own language.

While participants described their experience as 'just getting by,' the researcher applied the etic concept of 'resilience capital' from the theoretical framework.

F

Field Notes

Written records made by the researcher during or immediately after fieldwork. Field notes include descriptions of settings, people, activities, conversations, and the researcher's own reflections and impressions.

After each classroom observation, the researcher wrote detailed field notes describing the physical layout, student interactions, and her own emotional responses.

Focus Group

A data collection method in which a small group of participants (typically 6-10) discuss a topic guided by a moderator. Focus groups generate data through group interaction and are useful for exploring shared experiences and social norms.

The researcher conducted four focus groups with nurses to explore their perspectives on workplace communication challenges.

G

Grounded Theory

A systematic methodology that involves constructing theory through methodical gathering and analysis of data. The theory is 'grounded' in the data rather than derived from existing frameworks. Key processes include constant comparison, theoretical sampling, and coding.

Through constant comparison of interview data from 25 participants, the researcher developed a substantive theory of how first-year teachers navigate professional identity formation.

H

Hermeneutics

The theory and methodology of interpretation, originally applied to texts. In qualitative research, hermeneutics involves understanding meaning through iterative interpretation, moving between parts and the whole (the hermeneutic circle).

The researcher used the hermeneutic circle, moving between individual interview passages and the overall narrative to develop a deeper interpretation of the participant's experience of loss.

Horizonalization

A step in Moustakas' transcendental phenomenological analysis where every statement relevant to the experience is treated as having equal value. The researcher lists all significant statements before clustering them into meaning units.

The researcher identified 147 significant statements from interviews and listed each one as a horizon of the experience before grouping them into 12 meaning units.

I

Implicit Association Testing

A research technique that measures the strength of automatic, unconscious associations between concepts in a participant's mind. Used in qualitative research to uncover attitudes and biases that participants may be unable or unwilling to articulate directly.

The implicit association test revealed that participants held strong unconscious associations between 'organic' labels and 'premium quality,' despite explicitly stating that labeling did not influence their purchasing decisions.

In Vivo Coding

A coding method that uses the participants' own words or phrases as codes. In vivo codes preserve participants' language and meaning, making them particularly useful for honoring participant voice.

When a participant said 'I was just going through the motions,' the researcher used the exact phrase 'going through the motions' as an in vivo code.

Inductive Coding

A coding approach where codes emerge from the data itself rather than being predetermined. The researcher reads the data openly and generates codes based on what is found.

Without a predefined codebook, the researcher read transcripts and generated codes like 'navigating bureaucracy,' 'hidden curriculum,' and 'impostor feelings' directly from participant accounts.

Intentionality

A phenomenological concept referring to the directedness of consciousness — consciousness is always consciousness of something. Every experience involves both the act of experiencing (noesis) and the object of experience (noema).

The researcher explored intentionality by examining not just what participants perceived about their illness but how they directed their attention and meaning-making toward it.

Inter-Rater Reliability

The degree of agreement between two or more coders who independently code the same data. Measured using statistics like Cohen's kappa or percent agreement. Used primarily in content analysis and some forms of thematic analysis.

Two researchers independently coded 20% of the transcripts and achieved a Cohen's kappa of 0.82, indicating substantial agreement.

See also: Codebook, Coding, Trustworthiness

Interpretivism

A research paradigm that holds that reality is socially constructed and can be understood through the meanings people assign to their experiences. Interpretivist research seeks to understand rather than explain.

Operating from an interpretivist paradigm, the researcher sought to understand how teachers made sense of standardized testing policies in their daily practice.

Interview Protocol

A structured guide used during qualitative interviews that includes the research questions, interview questions, probes, and procedural notes. Also called an interview guide.

The interview protocol included six main questions, each with 2-3 follow-up probes, along with an opening script and closing procedures.

K

Kano Analysis

A product development framework that classifies user preferences into categories (must-be, one-dimensional, attractive, indifferent, reverse) to prioritize features based on their impact on satisfaction. Increasingly adopted by qualitative UX researchers to bridge user insights with agile development workflows.

Through qualitative interviews analyzed with the Kano model, the team discovered that a real-time chat feature was a 'must-be' requirement, while personalized dashboards were an 'attractive' differentiator that delighted users unexpectedly.

L

Lived Experience

A phenomenological term referring to first-person, pre-reflective experience of a phenomenon as it is actually lived, before it is conceptualized or theorized about.

The study explored the lived experience of immigrant mothers navigating the U.S. healthcare system for their children.

See also: Phenomenology, Essence, Bracketing

M

Meaning Units

Segments of text that each contain one discrete meaning relevant to the research question. Used in phenomenological analysis, meaning units are clusters of significant statements that share a common theme.

The researcher grouped significant statements into meaning units such as 'loss of control,' 'search for normalcy,' and 'redefined priorities.'

Member Checking

A validation technique in which the researcher shares data, interpretations, or findings with participants to verify accuracy and resonance. Also called participant validation or respondent validation.

The researcher sent a summary of themes to each participant and asked whether the findings accurately represented their experience.

Memoing

The practice of writing reflective notes during the research process. Memos capture the researcher's thoughts, interpretations, questions, and theoretical insights as they emerge during data collection and analysis.

After coding the fifth interview, the researcher wrote a memo exploring a possible connection between participants' immigration status and their reluctance to seek help.

N

Narrative Inquiry

A qualitative research approach that studies human experience through the stories people tell. Narrative inquiry examines how people construct meaning through narrative, attending to temporality, sociality, and place.

The researcher used narrative inquiry to understand how retired athletes constructed their identity through stories about their transition from competitive sport.

Negative Case Analysis

A strategy for enhancing credibility by actively searching for and examining cases or data that do not fit the emerging patterns or themes. Helps refine and strengthen the analysis.

While most participants described mentoring positively, one participant's negative experience led the researcher to refine the theme to include conditions under which mentoring fails.

O

Ontology

The branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of reality and being. In research, ontological assumptions shape whether the researcher believes in a single objective reality or multiple constructed realities.

A researcher with a relativist ontology assumes that multiple realities exist and that participants' perspectives are equally valid, even when they conflict.

Open Coding

The initial phase of coding in grounded theory where data are broken down, examined, compared, and categorized. Open coding is unrestricted — the researcher generates as many codes as needed to capture what is happening in the data.

During open coding of the first three transcripts, the researcher generated 87 initial codes, ranging from 'financial stress' to 'family expectations' to 'coping through humor.'

P

Paradigm

A worldview or framework of beliefs, values, and methods that shapes how research is conducted. Major qualitative paradigms include positivism, post-positivism, constructivism, and critical theory.

The researcher identified her study as operating within the constructivist paradigm, acknowledging that findings were co-constructed between herself and participants.

Participant Observation

A data collection method primarily associated with ethnography in which the researcher participates in the daily activities of the group being studied while simultaneously observing and recording data.

The researcher participated in weekly team meetings as a volunteer while observing communication patterns and power dynamics among staff members.

Pattern Matching

An analytic technique used in case study research that compares empirically observed patterns in the data with predicted patterns derived from theory or prior research.

The researcher compared the observed implementation pattern to the theoretical model and found that three of five predicted stages were present in the case.

Peer Debriefing

A process where the researcher discusses findings, methods, and interpretations with a knowledgeable colleague who is not directly involved in the study. Helps identify blind spots and challenge assumptions.

The researcher met biweekly with a colleague experienced in phenomenology to discuss emerging themes and challenge interpretive assumptions.

Phenomenology

A philosophical tradition and research approach focused on understanding the essence of lived experiences. Phenomenological research asks: What is the meaning, structure, and essence of this experience for these people?

The phenomenological study explored the lived experience of chronic pain among young adults, identifying the essence as 'living in a body that betrays.'

Positivism

A research paradigm that assumes an objective reality exists independent of human perception and can be measured and studied through systematic observation. Positivism privileges quantitative methods and seeks generalizable, causal explanations.

A positivist researcher would design a controlled experiment to test the effect of a teaching intervention, measuring outcomes with standardized tests.

Probe

A follow-up question or prompt used during qualitative interviews to encourage participants to elaborate, clarify, or provide more detail about their responses.

After the participant said 'it was really hard,' the researcher probed with 'Can you tell me more about what made it hard?'

Process Coding

A coding method that uses gerunds (-ing words) to represent actions, interactions, and processes observed in the data. Particularly useful in grounded theory for capturing dynamics and change.

The researcher used process codes like 'negotiating boundaries,' 'seeking validation,' and 'withdrawing from conflict' to capture participant actions.

See also: Coding, Grounded Theory, Open Coding

Prolonged Engagement

Spending sufficient time in the research setting to understand the culture, build trust with participants, and check for misinformation. A strategy for establishing credibility.

The researcher spent eight months at the community center before beginning formal data collection, building rapport and gaining participants' trust.

Purposeful Sampling

A non-probability sampling strategy in which participants are deliberately selected based on their ability to provide rich, relevant information about the phenomenon of interest.

The researcher used purposeful sampling to select 15 participants who had experienced workplace bullying and were willing to discuss it in depth.

R

Reflexivity

The researcher's ongoing, critical self-examination of their role, biases, assumptions, and influence on the research process and findings. Reflexivity is practiced through journaling, memoing, and self-dialogue.

In her reflexivity journal, the researcher noted how her own experience as a first-generation student might be shaping her interpretation of participants' stories.

Restorying

The process in narrative inquiry of reorganizing participants' stories into a coherent narrative framework, often attending to temporality (past, present, future), setting, and characters.

The researcher restoried the participant's fragmented account of career change into a three-act narrative: 'The Breaking Point,' 'The Wilderness,' and 'Finding New Ground.'

S

Selective Coding

The third phase of coding in Straussian grounded theory where the researcher identifies a core category that integrates all other categories. All other categories are systematically related to the core category.

After extensive axial coding, the researcher identified 'navigating invisible barriers' as the core category that unified all other categories in the emerging theory.

Semi-Structured Interview

An interview format that uses a set of predetermined open-ended questions while allowing flexibility to pursue topics raised by participants. The most common interview type in qualitative research.

The semi-structured interview guide included eight core questions but the researcher frequently asked follow-up questions based on participants' responses.

Semiotics

The study of signs, symbols, and their meanings within cultural contexts. In qualitative research, semiotic analysis examines how visual, verbal, and material signs convey meaning and shape human understanding, often applied to advertising, branding, and cultural artifacts.

The semiotic analysis of fast-food packaging revealed that color choices, typography, and imagery collectively signaled 'health' and 'freshness' despite the product's nutritional profile.

Synthetic Data

Artificially generated data produced by AI models trained on real-world datasets, used to simulate human responses or demographic profiles for research purposes. In qualitative research, synthetic respondents can replicate the language patterns and perspectives of specific populations.

To supplement a small sample of CFO interviews, the research team used an AI model trained on verified executive transcripts to generate synthetic responses, then compared findings against the original human data for validation.

T

Thematic Analysis

A method for identifying, analyzing, and reporting patterns (themes) within qualitative data. Braun and Clarke's reflexive thematic analysis follows six phases: familiarization, generating codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining themes, and producing the report.

Through thematic analysis of 20 interview transcripts, the researcher identified four main themes: 'identity negotiation,' 'institutional barriers,' 'community anchors,' and 'future aspirations.'

See also: Coding, Theme, Content Analysis

Theme

A pattern of shared meaning organized around a core concept or idea. Themes capture something important about the data in relation to the research question and represent a level of patterned meaning within the dataset.

The theme 'Walking on Eggshells' captured participants' shared experience of constantly monitoring their behavior to avoid triggering negative reactions from supervisors.

See also: Thematic Analysis, Coding, Category

Theoretical Sampling

A sampling strategy used in grounded theory where data collection is guided by the emerging theory. The researcher selects new participants or data sources that can help develop and refine emerging categories.

After initial interviews revealed the importance of family support, the researcher theoretically sampled participants from different family structures to develop this category further.

Thick Description

A richly detailed account of field experiences that describes not just behaviors but the context, meanings, and intentions behind them. Coined by Clifford Geertz, thick description enables readers to assess transferability.

Rather than simply noting 'the teacher raised her voice,' the researcher described the full context: the preceding student disruption, the teacher's visible frustration, the classroom layout, and the other students' reactions.

Transferability

The extent to which findings from a qualitative study can be applied or transferred to other contexts or settings. The qualitative parallel to external validity. Achieved through thick description that allows readers to judge applicability.

Through providing thick description of the school context, participants, and setting, the researcher enabled readers to determine whether findings might apply to similar urban schools.

Triangulation

The use of multiple data sources, methods, investigators, or theories to corroborate findings and strengthen credibility. Four types: data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory triangulation, and methodological triangulation.

The researcher triangulated findings by comparing data from individual interviews, focus groups, and document analysis to see if themes were consistent across sources.

Trustworthiness

The overarching framework for evaluating the quality and rigor of qualitative research, proposed by Lincoln and Guba as an alternative to quantitative concepts of validity and reliability. Includes four criteria: credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability.

The researcher addressed trustworthiness through prolonged engagement, triangulation, member checking, thick description, an audit trail, and reflexivity journaling.